Salem Witch Trials and Thesis Statement - 2226 Words

The Crucible Essay Assignment For your essay on The Crucible, please write a five paragraph, analytical essay in which you respond to one of the following prompts. 1. Although The Crucible revolves around the Salem Witch Trials, it allows readers to examine many themes. Choose a theme from The Crucible and discuss how it is developed throughout the play. How does this theme reveal the play’s deeper meaning? 2. The Crucible is a play of conflicts. Analyze a major conflict from The Crucible. Discuss how specific characters play a role in this conflict as well as how it contributes to the meaning of the play. 3. Some of the characters in the play are blind to the truth. Choose three characters and discuss why they are blind to†¦show more content†¦You should choose a topic and write a working thesis statement tonight. Topics and thesis statements will be collected Thursday, November 4 for approval. The Introduction Your introduction should move from general information to very specific information. You should imagine familiarizing the reader with: 1.) the title and author 2.) some information about the text 3.) your topic 4.) your thesis and three examples. Be sure to include: 1. A strong opening statement General 2. An establishment of the author and novel 3. An establishment of your topic More Specific 4. Your thesis statement and three examples 5. A transition into the body paragraphs Very Specific Move through this set of information in this order. This will give your introduction the appropriate set-up and flow. Example: Arthur Miller’s play, The Crucible, is wonderful example of how mass hysteria can spread throughout a small community. The setting of the play is Salem, Massachusetts in 1692 during the infamous Witch Trials. Miller uses these trials and the way they impacted the Salem community as a parallel to the Red Scare of the 1950s. Both time periods show the effect corrupt authorities can have on the lives of others. The author’s most striking commentary is on the roleShow MoreRelatedSalem Witch Hysteria And Trials1620 Words   |  7 PagesSalem Witch Hysteria and Trials Joshua Furman History 121: Early America to the Civil War Dr. Phillip Hamilton November 18, 2015  The Salem Witch Trial consisted of heinous accusations implicated by Cotton Mather which effected society as a hole and gave reasoning to the numerous amount of witch stories we hear today. Cotton Mather was the eldest son of Increase Mather, Massachusetts most influential and well known Puritan minister, and the grandson of John Cotton, Salem’s spiritualRead MoreSalem Witch Trials1692 Words   |  7 PagesThe Salem Witch Trials I: Introduction Attention Getter: During the Salem Witch Trials, about 200 people would be accused of Witchcraft, 19 would be executed as witches, and one man is his 80s would be put to death by stacking stone upon stone on his chest. General Purpose: To educate my audience about the Salem Witch Trials. Specific Purpose: My purpose is to display to you the power of fear in a place like Salem, or any place when they have the â€Å"witch hunt mentality.† Thesis Statement:Read MoreThe Crucible By Arthur Miller1358 Words   |  6 Pagesproduced in 1996 and portrayed the dramatized play written by Arthur Miller in 1953. The movie story deals with the Salem, Massachusetts hysteria in 1692 with an irrational fear of the devil. Witch hunts and false accusations resulted. Trials took place and resulted in the hanging and associated death of more than 20 people and the false imprisonment of many others. B. The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings and prosecutions of people accused of witchcraft. â€Å"From June through September ofRead MoreSalem Witch Trial vs Mccarthyism1208 Words   |  5 PagesA review of A Fever in Salem: A New Interpretation of the New England Witch Trials, by Laurie Winn Carlson, Ivan R. Dee, Chicago, 2000; 224 pp. $14.95 Paperback. ISBN: 1-566633095 A FEVER IN SALEM POSITS A biological cause for the early modem witchcraft epidemic, which resulted in the hanging of 19 people in Salem, MA, in 1692. Witchcraft persecution, Laurie Carlson writes, arose because of the strange behavior of the supposedly bewitched accusers. She concludes that the cause was a disease unrecognizableRead MoreCarol Karlsen s The Devil1692 Words   |  7 Pages2015 Carol Karlsen s The Devil in the Shape of a Woman† Carol Karlsen s The Devil in the Shape of a Woman† was written to provide the reader with an understanding of the role of the â€Å"witch† in colonial New England. During the early colonial period, pilgrims lived in a male-dominated society and the classical witch hunts were conducted in an attempt to maintain this societal structure. Since these hunts were placed under a religious guise, it was simple for these individuals to act as if they wereRead More Salem Witchcraft Trials Essay838 Words   |  4 Pages Salem Witchcraft Trials Thesis Statement ================ The Salem Witchcraft Trials occurred because of the depth of Salem Puritans belief in witchcraft and the devil. Introduction ============ The Salem Witchcraft trials started in 1692 resulting in 19 executions and 150 accusations of witchcraft. This was the biggest outbreak of witchcraft hysteria in colonial New England. The trials began because three young girls, Betty Parris, AbigailRead MoreThe Lottery950 Words   |  4 Pagesspooky setting of dark woods in the nearby town of Salem. The first thing a reader would think of when they hear the word/place â€Å"Salem† is witches. So automatically becomes a Halloween type of feel. It is then discussed that the story takes place during the time of the witch trials. It is not spoken as to what season this takes place, but with the visual you get the reader can assume its fall. The forest, the time of the story and the location of Salem helps to make this story very believable. In â€Å"TheRead MoreWhy Did People React So Strongly to Witchcraft in History? Essays1855 Words   |  8 Pagesdisturbing witch trials, and countless executions and hangings. Witchcraft was once and still can be a very controversial topic, as it challenges other’s religions and beliefs and is against Christianity. Back when the Church was the main source of authority and guidance, reactions to witchcraft were particularly strong and heated, as there are even bible quotes ordering the instant death of any witch or wizard. Concern was commonplace, especially considering the Salem Witchcraft Trials, since childrenRead MoreReis, Elizabeth.Damned Women: Sinners And Witches In Puritan1363 Words   |  6 PagesReis, Elizabeth. Damned Women: Sinners and Witches in Puritan New England. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1997. Thesis: Reis argues that through reading about the colonial Puritan s conception of sin and Satan, readers will expand their cultural and historical understanding of how people act on their religious belief...and how those religiously informed actions both reflect and prescribe their own particular gender arrangements, often to the detriment of women (10). In short, womenRead MoreThe Red Scare By Joseph Mccarthy1480 Words   |  6 Pagesassumptions of the Army, as well as the list of so called communists can resemble the lies or better known as the rumors told about many of the women and men in â€Å"The Crucible†. The Crucible written by Arthur Miller was a play is founded upon the Salem Witch Trials or The Red Scare. In which, in his words, many girls make up rumors about many women and men to get out of an incident that they and a slave had done in the woods. These rumors later on progress to major things... Such as hung and being beaten

Counseling Ethics Critical Thinking - 1196 Words

Logical Analysis of Ethics and Critical Thinking Ethics in Psychotherapy and Counseling 4th ed., Chapter 3 Authors: Kenneth Pope and Melba Vasquez The authors’ main purpose of this chapter is to teach the importance of examining our ethics through the lenses of critical thinking. In general, critical thinking is being able to learn new material with an open mind and having a heightened level of self-awareness of our biases and how our biases impact the analysis of information. A critical thinking approach when applied to the logical analysis of journal articles, chapters or entire textbooks--encourages us to analyze the author(s)’ goals, objectives, issues, observations, facts, conclusions, biases, inferences, assumptions,†¦show more content†¦The main inference in this chapter is being human makes us vulnerable to ethical errors. The key concepts we need to understand in this chapter are: learn to recognize major patterns and pitfalls. The main assumption(s) underlying the authors’ thinking is, we are not perfect, but ignorance is not bliss nor is it an e xcuse for unethical behavior. If we take this line of reasoning seriously, the implications are we must learn how judgement, the 22 types of logical fallacies in ethical reasoning, language and justifications impact are interpretation and commitment to adhere to our professional ethics. The consequences or benefits if you take authors’ line of reasoning: you will be less likely to commit ethical errors due to ignorance or experience difficulty applying ethics to your specific situation. However, if we fail to take this line of reasoning seriously, the implications are we are sure to succumb to the pitfalls of logical fallacies which may place our client’s or ourselves in harm’s way. Clinicians may be misguided or misdirected byShow MoreRelatedThe Theoretical Frameworks Governing The Field Of Counseling Psychology934 Words   |  4 Pagestheoretical frameworks governing the field of Counseling Psychology are theories emerging from several schools of thought including Psychoanalytic, Adlerian, Existential, Person-centered, Gestalt, Behavior, Cognitive behavior, Reality and Family systems. I will discuss and supplement the aforementioned therapy derived from theoretical foundations in the succeeding sections with the assistance of a class handout issued by Dr. Didi Firman for the course Counseling Theory and Practice and with excepts fromRead MoreEthical Ethics And Ethical Issues1311 Words   |  6 Pagesethical issues and codes; theoretical orientations to ethics and; legal and ethical issues. Each chapter is supplemented with a summary and questions for additional reflection and thought and using theory for concrete ethical judgments sections. The book concludes with an epilogue, references and appendixes section which outlines the differing existing codes of ethics. Author’s Background and Credentials: Stephen J. Freeman is a professor of Counseling and Chair of the Department of Counselor EducationRead MoreLying On The Couch By Irvin D. A Brief Essay1654 Words   |  7 PagesLying on the Couch by Irvin D. Yalom has been both entertaining and interesting from a counseling standpoint in that it provides a scandalous and as was in most of the cases, a look at what could go wrong if ethics in a clinical counseling setting go awry. Following the characters of Seymour Trotter, Earnest Lash, and Marshal Streider in working with their clients and with each other the ethical lessons to be learned become obviously apparent, if not emotionally painful. Although, numerous issuesRead MoreA Questionnaire for a Child and Family Development Specialist900 Words   |  4 Pagesit is not a practical starting point for providing counseling in child or family development setting. Indeed, practitioners in this field are increasingly finding that traditional conceptions of the American family unit are more limiting and problematic than useful in counseling. This dose promote the challenge, though, of providing counseling where a familys cultural orientation and value system differs dramatically from that of the counseling professional. According to the text by Palm (2009)Read MoreThe Scope Of Competency For Counseling Psychologists1131 Words   |  5 Pagespractice and scope of competency. Included research helps identify and elaborate more specifically on counseling psychologists and how the code of ethics is applied. The scope of practice for counseling psychologists includes helping individuals explore and recognize his/her strengths and identify a fitting-career and/or ways to cope with work problems between others. The scope of competency for counseling psychologists adheres to the same benchmarks that other practicing psychologists must follow, includin gRead MoreEssay on Counseling Ethics804 Words   |  4 Pagespracticing. And even with all this; â€Å"It is more helpful and effective to work within the framework of an established theory†¦practicing counseling without an explicit theoretical rational is somewhat like flying a plane without a map and without instruments. Theoretical orientation should not be a rigid structure that prescribes the specific steps of what to do in counseling, rather, theory should be a set of guidelines that counselors can use to make sense of what they are doing† (Collins1991, 90). ItRead MoreTest Anxiety And Performance That Indicate A Relationship Between Anxiety, Preparation And Test Performance927 Words   |  4 Pagesreasoning, analytical writing and critical thinking skills. (The GRE Test: What You Need to Know 2015). Scores from the GRE are used by graduate school counseling programs to indicate the future success of their students. The Counselor Preparation Comprehensive Examination (CPCE) is a comprehensive standardized test often taken prior to the graduate students completion of their program of study. It is designed to assess counseling students’ knowledge of counseling information viewed as importantRead MoreEthical Analysis : Ethical Competence1121 Words   |  5 Pageswhich determines how well we handle ourselves and each other. In the 1990s Daniel Goleman died research on promoting emotional intelligence as the new yardstick for measuring success at work. Goleman did not forge a strong link between emotions and ethics very forcefully, it is clear that a case can be made for a concept of ethical intelligence giving rise to ethical competence as a step beyond showing how emotional intelligence determines success in the workplace and in society (Berghofer, 2017).Read MoreAbnormal Human Behavior946 Words   |  4 PagesIn reflecting on the above outlined competency, I found myself thinking, with out the existence of abnormal human behavior, my life would not have been as interesting as it currently is. Throughout my adolescent years, primarily through observing others consistently, I was able to develop a profound interest and dedicated pensive thoughts into understanding the cognition and behaviors of human beings. As such, I would spend hours weekly, trying to understand why individuals think differently, seekRead MorePcn 505 Week 4 Paper1665 Words   |  7 PagesCounselor Ethics and Responsibilities Jennifer P Coetzee PCN-505 May 18, 2016 Kendra Stewart Counselor Ethics and Responsibilities Section 1: Counselor Values There are so many different views in opinions when it comes to the topic of abortion. There is the religious point that it is wrong to have an abortion because of the ten commandment that states â€Å"Thou shall not kill.† All have heard this one whether atheist or religious. People’s right to choose abortion or not has been questioned

Statistics The Behavioral Sciences

Question: Discuss about the Statistics for the behavioral sciences. Answer: Introduction Tv shows and DVD are widely used and they are favoured by everyone. Preference of Tv shows depend on the endings of the shows. Amount of money spent on purchasing DVD also depend on the preference of the movies (Albatineh et al. 2015). In this assignment, a business research topic is provided and it is based on amount spent on purchasing of DVD of the favourite movies and the preference of the TV shows depending on the ending of the TV shows. In this assignment, the data set of 100000 samples is given. Out of the 100000 samples, 100 would be chosen for the analysis and summary of the result (Bickel and Lehmann 2012. These 100 samples would be used to understand the concept of data representation, data manipulation and its summarisation based on certain criteria. Various primary statistical analyses would be performed and inference would be drawn from the analysis. These basic inferences would interpret the results of the tests and would give an idea about the choice of the viewers about the Tv shows and the amount spent to purchase DVD of their favourite movies. Graphs and charts would be presented in this assignment to give a better idea of the inference. Description of the data set 100000 respondents were surveyed for this research topic. 100 out of the 100000 respondents were chosen for this business assignment. The chosen respondents belonged to three categories in respect to Tv shows. The first category consist of the respondents whose favourite television show was the TV show with ending 1 (Sheehan et al. 2013). The second category was of respondents who preferred TV shows with ending 2 and the third category was the respondents who liked TV show with ending 3. The purchase of the DVD of movies depends on the likings of the movies. Amount spent to purchase the DVD is also influenced by the favouritism of the movies by the buyer. In this assignment, there are two kinds of variables were used; one is categorical variable and another is numerical variable. Numerical variable represents the amount of money spent to purchase DVD of their favourite movies and categorical variable represents the preference of the television shows based on endings of the shows (Bickel and Lehmann 2012. Criticising the given questions In this assignment, two questions are given. The first one states Do they like the movie? This question gives an idea about the likings of the movies and this liking depends on the end of the movies. From the data set, it was seen that 57 respondents liked the movies while 43 of them did not like the movies. This data set comprised of 100 samples that were chosen for the analysis. Out of the preferred movies, it was seen that 13 viewers liked movie of ending 1 and 21 of them liked movie with ending 2. 23 of them liked movie with ending 3 (Albatineh et al. 2015). Remaining respondents did not like any of the movies. It was also seen that 34 of them watched the movie with ending 1 was watched by 32 viewers and movie with ending 2. 34 viewers watched movie with ending 1. Another question that was asked in this survey was How much would they pay for the DVD? The survey revealed that 4.01 units were spent for DVD of movie with ending 1, 7.05units was spent for DVD of movie with ending 2 and 6.50units were spent for DVD of movie with ending 3. Summary of the data set On analysing the given data, it was seen that phat1 was 0.382352941. This denotes the sample proportion who favoured movies with ending 1. The value of phat2 was 0.65625 and it depicts the proportion of respondents who favoured movies with ending 2. The value of phat3 was found to be 0.676470588 and this tells the proportion of samples who liked movies with ending 3 (Bickel and Lehmann 2012). The analysis also gave the values of phat1 phat2, and phat2 pha3. phat1 phat2 had a value of -0.273897059 and it gives an idea that 0.273897059 proportion of viewers favoured movie with ending 2 more than movie with ending 1 (Weiss and Weiss 2012). This also gives an idea about the difference in the proportion of preference between the movies with ending 1 and movies with ending 2. The value of phat2 phat3 was found to be -0.020220588, which gives an idea that the proportion of viewers who preferred movies with ending 3 was 0.02022058 more than the proportion of people who preferred movies with ending 2 (Tian and Li 2015). This number denotes the difference between the proportion of preferences between movies with ending 2 and movies with ending 3. The preferential proportions of the different types of movies as per the endings of the movies are given below in the column chart. Chart 1: preferential proportions of three different television shows with different endings (Source: created by author) Xbar1 had the value 4.008823529 units, xbar2 had the value 7.05 units and xbar3 had the value of 6.5 units. This gives an idea that the average expenditure to purchase DVD of movies with ending1 is 4.008823529 units, the average expenditure to buy DVD with ending 2 is 7.05 units and the average expenses to buy DVD with ending 3 is 6.5 units (Gravetter and Wallnau 2016). xbar1-xbar2 was found to have a value of -4.216 and xbar2-xbar3 was found to have a value of -3.041176471. This can be interpreted that the average expenses to buy DVD of movie with ending 2 was 3.041176471units more than the average amount of expenditure to buy movies of ending 1 (Albatineh et al. 2015). The value of xbar2-xbar3 depicts that the average expenses to buy movies with ending 2 was 0.55 units more than the average expenses to buy DVD of movies with ending 3. Thus, it can be seen that the maximum average amount of money spent to buy the DVD was for movies with ending 3. The histogram below shows the amount of money required to buy DVD of movies with ending 1: Chart 2: Histogram for the expenses to purchase DVD of movie with ending 1 (Source: created by author) The histogram below shows the amount of money required to buy DVD of movies with ending 2: Chart 3: Histogram for the expenses to purchase DVD of movie with ending 2 (Source: created by author) The histogram below shows the amount of money required to buy DVD of movies with ending 3: Chart 4: Histogram for the expenses to purchase DVD of movie with ending 3 (Source: created by author) The analysis showed that the mean amount of money spent on movie with ending 1 was 4.00882 units and its standard deviation is 4.7184 units (Albatineh et al. 2015). The minimum amount of money spent was found to be 0 units and the maximum amount of money spent was found to be 13 units. The value of Q1 was 0.4 while the value of Q3 was 8.75. The median of this data set was 0.75 units. The analysis for the amount spent on movies with ending 2 depicted that the mean value spent of the DVD of movie with ending 2 was 7.05 units and the standard deviation was 5.060282 units (Gravetter and Wallnau 2016). The minimum amount spent to purchase these DVD was 0 units and the maximum amount spent was 13 units. The Q1 had a value of 0.8 and Q3 had a value of 11.25. The median of this data set was 9. The average expenditure to buy movie with ending 3 was 6.5 units and the standard deviation had a value of 4.542393 units (Weiss and Weiss 2012). The minimum amount spend was 0 units and the maximum amount spent was 12 units. The value of Q1 was of the value 0.65 and the value of Q3 was 10. The median was found to have a value of 10 units. Discuss the results of section 3 Do they like the tv show compares the different movies based on their endings. This comparison gave a result that 0.382952941 proportion of viewers liked to watch movie with ending1 and proportion of 0.65625 viewers liked to watch movie with ending 2. Proportion of 0.676470588 liked to watch movie that had ending 3 (Tian and Li 2015). The analysis of variable how much would they pay gave three different histograms for the expenditures to purchase them. It can be seen the movie with ending 1 was positively skewed and non-symmetric. It is a moderate right tailed distribution. The expenditure for the DVD of movie with ending 2 was negatively skewed distribution and it had moderate density of left tail (Bickel and Lehmann 2012). For the distribution of the amount spent on purchasing DVD of movie with ending 3 shows that it is a left tailed distribution and it is negatively skewed. The problems of getting survey data in the real world Many problems are faced while collecting data for the survey. Sometimes, the respondents give wrong information about the questions asked to them. This is because either they might think the survey as unimportant or they might be busy while giving the interview. They also provide bias answers to the researchers, which influence the outcome of the test. Some respondents behave in this manner because they do not want to provide the correct answer to the questions. The respondents sometimes did not give response to the questions and the researchers are bound to put arbitrary data in their research data (Sheehan et al. 2013). The researchers are sometimes bound to put arbitrary data because the respondents do not answer their questions and they need the data for their research. This gives incorrect information about the survey and they influence the result. In order to overcome these problems, the people who are interested in movies and regularly watches movies should be interviewed. The y would give few wrong information about this business research topic. Hypothesis tests The claim that the ending type is independent of the variable of preference of Tv shows is false. This is because the ending type influences the preference of the TV shows by the views. Thus, ending type is dependent on the preference of TV shows (Harlow et al. 2013). From the standard deviation it can be seen that the standard deviation of ending 1 is more than the standard deviation of ending 2. This depicts that there is a difference for money spent by people on movies with ending 1 and ending 2. The claim that the ending of movies of ending 2 and ending 3 do not influence the preference of the TV shows is wrong. This is because it was seen earlier that the viewers prefer the TV shows as per their endings. Thus, Endings influence the preference of TV shows and it is dependent of preference of TV shows (Efron 2012). The standard deviations of both the variables are nearly equal (Koch 2013). This suggests that both the variables have nearly same value. Thus, the claim that the people would pay different, for ending 2 and ending 3 is false. A discussion about the concept of sampling distribution Sampling distribution refers to the probability distribution of the random variables from the chosen population. This gives an idea about the population and its characteristics, which is tough to predict, otherwise (Hsu 2014). In this assignment the two variables Do they like the movie? and How much would they pay for the DVD? gave a brief idea about the population they were selected. This idea was given from through the methods of descriptive statistics and other distribution methods. Graphs and charts drawn against these variables also briefed about the samples and the population they belong. Conclusion Quantitative methods were used in this assignment to analyse the two variables, Do they like the movie? and How much would they pay for the DVD? The analysis lead to the inference that the preference of the TV shows varied with the ending of the movies. It was also seen that the amount spent to purchase DVD depend on the likings of the movies by the viewers. The concept of sampling distribution was also briefed in this assignment and this was done in the context of the business topic. Graphs and charts were also used to give an idea about the samples and its populations. References Albatineh, A.N., Boubakari, I. and Kibria, B.G., 2015. New Confidence Interval Estimator of the Signal-to-Noise Ratio Based on Asymptotic Sampling Distribution.Communications in Statistics-Theory and Methods, (just-accepted). Bickel, P.J. and Lehmann, E.L., 2012. Descriptive statistics for nonparametric models IV. Spread. InSelected Works of EL Lehmann(pp. 519-526). Springer US. Efron, B., 2012. Large-scale simultaneous hypothesis testing.Journal of the American Statistical Association. Gravetter, F. and Wallnau, L., 2016.Statistics for the behavioral sciences. Cengage Learning. Harlow, L.L., Mulaik, S.A. and Steiger, J.H., 2013.What if there were no significance tests?. Psychology Press. Hsu, D., 2014. Weighted sampling of outer products.arXiv preprint arXiv:1410.4429. Koch, K.R., 2013.Parameter estimation and hypothesis testing in linear models. Springer Science Business Media Sheehan, S., Harris, K. and Song, Y.S., 2013. Estimating variable effective population sizes from multiple genomes: a sequentially Markov conditional sampling distribution approach.Genetics,194(3), pp.647-662 Tian, G.L. and Li, H.Q., 2015. A new framework of statistical inferences based on the valid joint sampling distribution of the observed counts in an incomplete contingency table.Statistical methods in medical research, p.0962280215586591. Weiss, N.A. and Weiss, C.A., 2012.Introductory statistics. USA: Pearson Education.

The structure of keratin and collagen and show how their structures are suited to their biological functions Essay Example

The structure of keratin and collagen and show how their structures are suited to their biological functions Paper Keratin and collagen are very vital within the bodys structure; both are very similar in nature, being that they derive from amino acids, which make up their respective proteins. They both fall under a group of particular proteins known as scleroproteins or fibrous in nature. Majority of their structure consist of left-handed helix structures1. Scleroproteins make up one of the two major protein categories, the other being globular. Keratin and collagen each represent one of the three subclasses within scleroproteins. As scleroproteins their jobs are to provide support and protection for the body. They are adapt for this because of their complex structure of repeating polypeptide chains which strengthen as the bind together; this and their insolubility are vital in maintaining the anatomy of the body. Whilst being similar in some ways, collagen and keratin remain different in their specific functions and role. As mentioned above keratin is one of the three scleroproteins. It is an extremely strong, insoluble tertiary protein; it is the main constituent in the structures of various parts in the body. These include the skin, hair, nails, as well as horns and hooves in animals. The variety of body compounds that contain keratin show that it is a material that varies depending on function. In relation to skin, the amino acids, which make it up are arranged differently from any other form of keratin and make up the soft layer known as skin. It is present in all epithelial cells, those on the outer surface and on the inner surface such as the lining of the digestive tract. On the other end of things nails contain keratin, which are very hard. We will write a custom essay sample on The structure of keratin and collagen and show how their structures are suited to their biological functions specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The structure of keratin and collagen and show how their structures are suited to their biological functions specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The structure of keratin and collagen and show how their structures are suited to their biological functions specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Other hard substances such as horns and hooves are formed by epithelial cells adapting to growing generous amounts of keratin and then dying as individual cells, leaving the keratin to form into these hard structures2. Where keratin is needed to be hard the arrangement of specific amino acids respond to the need to form a tough material. One of keratins important qualities is that it has the ability to flex and not tear of become destroyed. Keratin reinforces epithelial cells by helping to maintain their connections between cells. Cornification also known as keratinization is the foundation of how keratin in formed. The outer cells on the epidermis lose their function in this process, the cells organelles such as the nucleus and mitochondria disappear and metabolism ceases as the cells become replaced by keratin. This new layer is incapable of sensory perception and is classified as dead. Keratin covers the width of a cell enabling it to connect indirectly with other keratin in adjoining cell to form junctions called desmosomes2, this makes the outer most layer of non-porous, almost water proof. There are many types of keratin found in the body and in mammals, each type structured to suit its function. The most common form of keratin found in most parts of the body is alpha keratin3. They have long fibrous strands that super coil into alpha helixes, the folds and the short repeating units along the polypeptide chain are what make up their composition. The alpha helix is formed from an alpha keratin polypeptide, two of these twists around each other to form a coil. The hydrophobic strips on one helix associates itself with the other. This allows the side chains to interlock. The combination of the two coils is known as a dimmer. This is the basis of the protofilament of which 2 make up a protofibril. Four protofibrils make up a microfibril. The associations of many microfibrils form a macrofibril4. Hair for example consists of layers of dead cells that are packed with macrofibrils. The diagram below shows a general idea of how the higher order of alpha keratin is structured. A key feature of its structure is that is contains cysteine disulfide, this makes up for almost 24% of the amino acid structure5, it allows it to form disulphide bridges which forms a helix shape that is extremely strong. As the sulphur atoms bond covalently to each other across the helix, it forms a fibrous matrix, which is highly stable. High percentages of glycine and alanine aid to the formation of hydrogen bonds between amino and carboxyl groups of adjacent peptide bonds6. The disulphide bridges and hydrogen bonding cause insolubility in things like water. This structural feature is vital in mammals. The long filaments present in the structure provide support for the epithelial cells that contain keratin such as skin. It protects the body from damage by allowing other tissues to form around it and stabilize. Collagen is one of other types of scleroprotein, as with keratin it is an important part in majority of the bodys structures. It is the main component in connective tissue. It makes up for roughly 25% of the bodys protein7. Its strength and insolubility make it the most abundant protein in mammals. Being a connective protein it is seen in body tissues such as the skin, muscles, tendon and cartilage. There are about 25 different types of collagen that occur in the body. Collagen widely works with the other scleroproteins supporting the bodys tissues. It does this by providing support, firmness and strength. Collagen may be seen in different forms such as endomysium and fibrous tissue8, different types being made for different parts of the body such as the cornea, bone, blood vessels as well as the gut. It is able to withstand intense pulling and stretching. It makes up the major stress bearing parts of connective tissue4. One of the most important qualities of collagen is strength; it has the tensile strength of steel and is used to strengthen bone similarly to how metal rods reinforce concrete. It has been seen as a form of glue that hold the body together; with out it the human body would not be one complete structure. Collagen appears to be able to do this as a result of features within its structure. For a long period of time scientists have struggled to identify the exact structure of collagen, this is because of its unusual amino acid composition. Collagen has a super-coiled helical shape, it is long, stringy, strong, and resembles a rope. Its primary structure consists of a repeating sequence of glycine and two other amino acids, often proline and hydroxyproline; this forms its sturdy structure. These amino acids cause the chain not to gain the normal alpha- helix or beta- sheet structure; instead they form the long separate chains that allow the collagen triple helix to form9. A single strand of collagen is composed of three chains of polypeptides each being about 1000 amino acids long, the three strands are arranged parallel to each other and are wound up into a triple helix. The bundling of the fiber together and hydrogen bonding between the lengths of the polypeptide chain give it strength. The diagram below gives a general idea as to how a collagen fiber is shaped. Collagens tightly wound matrix of fibers in its structure is very vital in its function, being that majority of the body comprises of it, it need be very strong. For instance collagen is a major component of tendons, which connect muscles to bones, and ligaments, which connect bones to joints. The variance of collagen in these two parts is very little, but remain specialised for both areas. Both parts require strength and flexibility, things that are provided and adjusted from the compactions of the collagen fibers. As mentioned collagen varies in strength and flexibility depending on where its located and its function as connective tissue. Structural defects within the structures of vital proteins such as collagen and keratin can be responsible for major metabolic related diseases. Osteogenesis imperfecta also known as brittle bone disease is an example of one of these conditions that affect collagen. Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) is a genetic disorder that causes extremely fragile bones. As a result people with the condition tend to have many fractures within a lifetime. It is an inherited disease; it is caused by mutations within the genes of type 1 collagen (the most prevalent collagen in the body). The deficiency stems from the substitution of the amino acid glycine, it should normally be at every third position for the triple helix to form properly, mutations that result in amino acids other than glycine in that position cause an issue within the collagen complex which produce unstable helices. The bodys lack of response to the dysfunctional collagen structure allows it to be hydrolyzed. When unstable helices form in the collagen associated with tendons and bones, such as Type I collagen, severely weak bone formation results10. There are 8 types of OI ranging form type I- VIII. The later being the worst case of it. The severity the condition depends on the specific gene defect. OI is typically hard to generalize as it varies from person to person, even when two people in the same family have the same form of it, the characteristics may be completely different. Symptoms of the condition vary; they may include blue sclera and early hearing loss. Milder forms of OI result in bowed arms and legs, scoliosis and kyphosis11. Currently there arent any cures for the condition. Treatment is directed toward preventing or controlling the symptoms, maximizing independent mobility, and developing optimal bone mass and muscle strength. Various forms of therapy are in place to reduce suffering for individuals with the condition. In extremely severe cases a surgical procedure called rodding is used. This involves inserting metal rods through the length of the long bones to strengthen them and prevent and/or correct deformities12. Research into various medication and other treatments are being explored, some include growth hormones, gene therapy and other multiple types of drugs.